International Trade and Nepal Essay Example for Free

International Trade and Nepal Essay An isolated, agrarian society until the mid-20th century, Nepal entered the modern era in 1951 without schools, hospitals, roads, telecommunications, electric power, industry, or civil service. The country has, however, made progress toward sustainable economic growth since the 1950s and is committed to a program of economic liberalization. Nepal has used a series of five-year plans in an attempt to make progress in economic development. It completed its ninth economic development plan in 2002; its currency has been made convertible, and 17 state enterprises have been privatized. Foreign aid accounts for more than half of the development budget. Government priorities over the years have been the development of transportation and communication facilities, agriculture, and industry. Since 1975, improved government administration and rural development efforts have been emphasized. Agriculture remains Nepals principal economic activity, employing 80% of the population and providing 37% of GDP. Only about 20% of the total area is cultivable; another 33% is forested; most of the rest is mountainous. Rice and wheat are the main food crops. The lowland Terai region produces an agricultural surplus, part of which supplies the food-deficient hill areas. Economic development in social services and infrastructure has not made dramatic progress due to GDP dependency on India. A countrywide primary education system is under development, and Tribhuvan University has several campuses. Please see Education in Nepal for further details. Although eradication efforts continue, malaria had been controlled in the fertile but previously uninhabitable Terai region in the south. Kathmandu is linked to India and nearby hill regions by road and an expanding highway network. The capital was almost out of fuel and transport of supplies caused by a crippling general strike in southern Nepal on February 17, 2008. Major towns are connected to the capital by telephone and domestic air services. The export-oriented carpet and garment industries have grown rapidly in recent years and together now account for approximately 70% of merchandise exports. Nepal was ranked 54th worst of 81 ranked countries (those with GHI 5.0) on the Global Hunger Index in 2011, between Cambodia and Togo. Nepals current score of 19.9 is better than in 2010 (20.0) and much improved than its score of 27.5 in 1990 Relations between India and Nepal are close yet fraught with difficulties stemming from geographical location, economics, the problems inherent in big power-small power relations, and common ethnic, linguistic and cultural identities that overlap the two countries borders. New Delhi and Kathmandu initiated their intertwined relationship with the 1950 Indo-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship and accompanying letters that defined security relations between the two countries, and an agreement governing both bilateral trade and trade transiting Indian soil. The 1950 treaty and letters stated that neither government shall tolerate any threat to the security of the other by a foreign aggressor and obligated both sides to inform each other of any serious friction or misunderstanding with any neighboring state likely to cause any breach in the friendly relations subsisting between the two governments. These accords cemented a special relationship between India and Nepal that granted Nepal preferential economic treatment and provided Nepalese in India the same economic and educational opportunities as Indian citizens. Jayant Prasad is Indias ambassador to Nepal. Nepal is developing county with an agricultural economy. In recent years, the countrys efforts to expand into manufacturing industries and other technological sectors have achieved much progress. Farming is the main economic activity followed by manufacturing, trade and tourism. The chief sources of foreign currency earnings are merchandise export, services, tourism and Gurkha remittances. The annual Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is about US$ 4.3 Billion. Agriculture : Eight out of 10 Nepalese are engaged in farming and it accounts for more than 40% of the GDP. Rolling fields and neat terraces can be seen all over the Terai flatlands and the hills of Nepal. Even in the highly urbanized Kathmandu Valley, large tracts of land outside the city areas are devoted to farming. Rice is the staple diet in Nepal and around three million tons are produced annually. Other major crops are maize, wheat, millet and barley. Besides food grains, Cash crops Like Sugarcane, oil seeds, tobacco, jute and tea are also cultivated in large quantities, Manufacturing : Manufacturing is still at the developmental stage and it represents less than 10% of the GDP. Major industries are woolen carpets, garments, textiles, leather products, paper and cement. Other products made in Nepal are steel utensils, cigarettes, beverages and sugar. There are many modern large-scale factories but the majority are cottage or small scale operations. Most of Nepals industries are based in the Kathmandu Valley and a string of Small towns in the southern Terai Plains. Trade : Commerce has been a major occupation in Nepal since early times. Being situated at the crossroads of the ancient Trans-Himalayan trade route, trading is second nature to the Nepalese people. Foreign trade is characterized mainly by import of manufactured products and export of agricultural raw materials. Nepal imports manufactured goods and petroleum products worth about US$ 1 billion annually. The value of exports is about US$ 315 million. Woolen carpets are Nepals largest export, earning the country over US$ 135 million per year. Garment exports account for more than US$ 74 million and handicraft goods bring in about US$ 1 million. Other important exports are pulses, hides and skins, jute and medicinal herbs. Tourism : In 1998, a total of 463,684 tourists visited Nepal, making tourism one of the largest industries in the Kingdom. This sector has been expanding rapidly since its inception in the 1950. Thanks to Nepals natural beauty, rich cultural heritage and the diversity of sight-seeing and adventure opportunities available. At one time, tourism used to be the biggest foreign currency earner for the country. Nepal earned over US$ 152 million from tourism in 1998. INDEPENDENT POLITICAL HISTORY 1950–1970 In the 1950s, Nepal welcomed close relations with India, but as the number of Nepalese living and working in India increased and the involvement of India in Nepals economy deepened in the 1960s and after, so too did Nepalese discomfort with the special relationship. Tensions came to a head in the mid-1970s, when Nepal pressed for substantial amendments in its favor in the trade and transit treaty and openly criticized Indias 1975 annexation of Sikkim which was considered as part of Greater Nepal. In 1975 King Birendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev proposed that Nepal be recognized internationally as a zone of peace; he received support from China and Pakistan. In New Delhis view, if the kings proposal did not contradict the 1950 treaty an extension of nonalignment, it was unnecessary; if it was a repudiation of the special relationship, it represented a possible threat to Indias security and could not be endorsed. In 1984 Nepal repeated the proposal, but there was no reaction from India. Nepal continually promoted the proposal in international forums and by 1990 it had won the support of 112 countries. 1970–1980 In 1978 India agreed to separate trade and transit treaties, satisfying a long-term Nepalese demand. In 1988, when the two treaties were up for renewal, Nepals refusal to accommodate Indias wishes on the transit treaty caused India to call for a single trade and transit treaty. Thereafter, Nepal took a hard-line position that led to a serious crisis in India–Nepal relations. After two extensions, the two treaties expired on March 23, 1989, resulting in a virtual Indian economic blockade of Nepal that lasted until late April 1990. Although economic issues were a major factor in the two countries confrontation, Indian dissatisfaction with Nepals 1988 acquisition of Chinese weaponry played an important role. Treaties and letters exchanged in 1959 and 1965, which included Nepal in Indias security zone and precluded arms purchases without Indias approval. India linked security with economic relations and insisted on reviewing India–Nepal relations as a whole. Nepal had to back down after worsening economic conditions led to a change in Nepals political system, in which the king was forced to institute a parliamentary democracy. The new government sought quick restoration of amicable relations with India. 1990s The special security relationship between New Delhi and Kathmandu was reestablished during the June 1990 New Delhi meeting of Nepals prime minister Krishna Prasad Bhattarai and Indian prime minister V.P. Singh. During the December 1991 visit to India by Nepalese prime minister Girija Prasad Koirala, the two countries signed new, separate trade and transit treaties and other economic agreements designed to accord Nepal additional economic benefits. Indian-Nepali relations appeared to be undergoing still more reassessment when Nepals prime minister Man Mohan Adhikary visited New Delhi in April 1995 and insisted on a major review of the 1950 peace and friendship treaty. In the face of benign statements by his Indian hosts relating to the treaty, Adhikary sought greater economic independence for his landlocked nation while simultaneously striving to improve ties with China. India sponsored Nepals admission to the U.N.O. in 1990. 21st century Nepal remains poor and deprived in 21st century while India has acquired a central place in the world with a very high development rate. In 2005, after King Gyanendra took over, Nepalese relations with India soured. However, after the restoration of democracy, in 2008, Prachanda, the Prime Minister of Nepal, visited India, in September 2008. He spoke about a new dawn, in the bilateral relations, between the two countries. He said, I am going back to Nepal as a satisfied person. I will tell Nepali citizens back home that a new era has dawned. Time has come to effect a revolutionary change in bilateral relations. On behalf of the new government, I assure you that we are committed to make a fresh start. He met Indian Prime minister, Manmohan Singh, and Foreign Minister, Pranab Mukherjee. He asked India to help Nepal frame a new constitution, and to invest in Nepals infrastructure, and its tourism industry. In 2008, Indo-Nepali ties got a further boost with an agreement to resume water talks after a 4 year hiatus. The Nepalese Water Resources Secretary Shanker Prasad Koirala said the Nepal-India Joint Committee on Water Resources meet decided to start the reconstruction of breached Kosi embankment after the water level goes down. During the Nepal PMs visit to New Delhi in September the two Prime Ministers expressed satisfaction at the age-old close, cordial and extensive relationships between their states and expressed their support and cooperation to further consolidate the relationship. The two issued a 22-point statement highlighting the need to review, adjust and update the 1950 Treaty of Peace and Friendship, amongst other agreements. India would also provide a credit line of up to 150 crore rupees to Nepal to ensure uninterrupted supplies of petroleum products, as well as lift bans on the export of rice, wheat, maize, sugar and sucrose for quantities agreed to with Nepal. India would also provide 20 crore as immediate flood relief. In return, Nepal will take measures for the promotion of investor friendly, enabling business environment to encourage Indian investments in Nepal. In 2010 India extended Line of credit worth $ 250 million 80,000 tones of foodgrains.Furthermore, a three-tier mechanism at the level of ministerial, secretary and technical levels will be built to push forward discussions on the development of water resources between the two sides. Politically, India acknowledged a willingness to promote efforts towards peace in Nepal. Indian External affairs minister Pranab Mukherjee promised the Nepali Prime Minister Prachanda that he would extend all possible help for peace and development. In 2008, the Bollywood film Chandni Chowk to China was banned in Nepal, because of a scene suggesting the Gautama Buddha was born in India. Some protesters called for commercial boycott of all Indian films. BORDER DISPUTES So far as the Indo-Nepal border demarcation is concerned, Nepal-India Joint Technical Level Boundary Committee is working for the last 21 years (since 15 November 1981). But the boundary business is not yet completed. There may be so many reasons the boundary business not to be completed in due time, though it has the target to complete it by 2003. However, this type of target had been fixed many times in the past as in 1993, 1998 and 2001. But the target was not materialized. The main reasons and issues of the boundary business with India is the border encroachments, disputes on certain segments, divergence of opinion on basic materials such as maps and old documents for demarcation, slackness in joint survey field teams and so on and so forth. Nepal and India has two broad issues concerning border business: Border Demarcation Border Management BORDER DEMARCATION The Treaty of Sugauli of 4 March 1816, Supplementary Treaty of 11 December 1816 and Boundary Treaty of 1 November 1860 delineate the boundary of Nepal with India. British East India Company made treaty of Sugauli on 2 December 1815 and it was provided to Nepal to make the counter signature by fifteen days. But Nepal did not make the signature in due time, because of unwillingness. It was finally ratified after 92 days under pressure and compulsion enforced by the British regime that they will invade Kathmandu, the capital city of Nepal. Eventually, it was not signed by the King or Prime Minister/Maharaja but by only the courtier Chandra Shekhar Upadhaya. So there were disputes and conflicts and controversy on the borderline even after the ratification of the Treaty. Historical Border Disputes : There were so many issues of disputes just after the Sugauli Treaty. Some of the disputed areas are cited as examples as follows: Disputes on Siwalik Range : whether the borderline runs from the crest (ridge) of the Siwalik Range or northern or southern foot-hill of the range! Origin of the river Mechi : whether it is originated from north-east of Antoo Hill or from north-west! Dunduwa Range : India had claimed that the border line should be followed on the northern foot from Arrahnala to Talbagauda, whereas Nepal denied it. Dispute on ownership of the village and settlements of Ramnagar Zamindari area. Dispute on the lands adjoined with the districts of Tirahoot and Sarun. Land area of Sharada Barrage constructed by India on the river Mahakali. Disputes on the borderline of the river and rivulets, whether it has to be taken on the old course or the new channel. Disputes on the demarcation of borderlines in agricultural land, forest area and village areas, where there are not conspicuous features. Some of the above mentioned disputes were settled with mutual discussions. For example, identification of the origin of the river Mechi was solved by Campbell, taken as the origination from north-east, though Captain Lloyd had judged in 1827 that the area falls under the jurisdiction of Sikkim. Similarly, the dispute of Dunduwa range was solved jointly by Lieutenant Col. Mac Andrew and Siddhiman Singh Rajbhandari on 7 January 1875 that the borderline shall be demarcated on the southern foot-hill of Dunduwa Range from where the plain area begins. Regarding the disputes of Ramnagar Zamindari area, it was settled on 2 January 1841 with an Ikararnama of 95 people of village-heads, gentlemen, Chautaria and Guru Gharana. As far as the matter of the exchange of lands of Sharada Barrage is concerned, Nepal has not yet received 36.67 Acre of land from India. These are some of the examples of the then border issues between Nepal and East India Company. The main problem lies that Nepal’s southern borderline on the Indo-Gangetic plain with India does not run from the prominent natural features such as mountain peaks, passes, crests etc. NEPAL IS ONE OF THE POOREST COUNTRIES in the world and was listed as the eleventh poorest among 121 countries in 1989. Estimates of its per capita income for 1988 ranged from US$158 to US$180. Various factors contributed to the economic underdevelopmentincluding terrain, lack of resource endowment, landlocked position, lack of institutions for modernization, weak infrastructure, and a lack of policies conducive to development. Until 1951 Nepal had very little contact with countries other than India, Tibet, and Britain. Movement of goods or people from one part of the country to another usually required passage through India, making Nepal dependent on trade with or via India. The mountains to the north and the lack of economic growth in Tibet (Chinas Xizang Autonomous Region after 1959) meant very little trade was possible with Nepals northern neighbor. Prior to 1951, there were few all-weather roads, and the transportation of goods was difficult. Goods were able to reach Kathmandu by railroad, trucks, and ropeways, but for other parts of the country such facilities remained almost non-existent. This lack of infrastructure made it hard to expand markets and pursue economic growth. Since 1951 Nepal has tried to expand its contacts with other countries and to improve its infrastructure, although the lack of significant progress was still evident in the early 1990s. The effects of being landlocked and of having to transit goods through India continued to be reflected in the early 1990s. As a result of the lapse of the trade and transit treaties with India in March 1989, Nepal faced shortages of certain consumer goods, raw materials, and other industrial inputs, a situation that led to a decline in industrial production. Nepal-India Joint Technical Level Boundary Committee : Nepal-India Joint Technical Level Boundary Committee is working for the last twenty-one years. It is going to relocate the missing pillars, reconstruction of the damaged and dilapidated pillars, clear ten-yard width no-man’s land and preparation of strip-maps of both the sides of borderline. But it has not resolved the issues, such as Kalapani-Limpiyadhura, identification of the source or river Kali, Susta dispute, Mechi controversy etc. These are the major issues and problems of demarcations of border between two nations, which should be settled in higher level (most probably in head of the government level) with diplomatic and political level talks. The issues climb slowly up to the ministerial level but it is instantly pushed back to the technical level, which has its limitations as the nature of the problem. In such a fashion, major issues have not yet given yield by the higher level decision making authorities. BORDER MANAGEMENT There is an open border system between Nepal and India, whereas Nepal has its controlled border system with China. It needs passport and visa to go to China and recently Hong Kong, after China regained it from Britain. If we have a look back on the border management system between Nepal and India, anyone entering into Nepal particularly to the Kathmandu valley and towns of Tarai in general, had to get Rahadani or visa from the district administrations. It was prior to the restoration of Naya Muluk by Nepal in 1860, as the controlled border system was prevalent during that period. Afterwards, it was started slowly to keep the border open for recruiting the Nepalese hill and sturdy boys in British Gurkha regiment. The second factor was to have easy and free access of British and Indian goods and material into Nepal and Tibet (via Nepal). Next was to secure raw materials from Nepal to India such as timber, forest products, herbs and medicinal plants, hides and skins etc. Open Border System : Nepal-India Peace and Friendship Treaty of 31 July 1950 motivated for the openness of border between two countries. After the installation of democracy in Nepal in February 1951, it became major turning point in reinforcing the Nepal-India border open with the accelerated movement of Indian nationals into Nepal. Indians used to come to Kathmandu as politicians as advisors to the Nepalese ministers, overseers as technical experts, unemployed citizens as teachers, retailers as whole seller businessmen etc. Similarly, Nepalese were also free to go to Indian cities in search of jobs and works as guards, domestic workers and restaurant waiters. All these phenomena can be cited as Nepal India open border as it is unique in the world in the sense that people of both countries could cross the international borderline from any point / any time. Single citizen could cross the frontier of both the sides without any record running to and fro so many times a day. Impact of Open Border System : Every object has its two aspects as every coin bears two faces. And every item has its negative and positive impacts. Similarly, Nepal-India open border system has its negative and positive impacts for both the nations. But Nepal has experienced a large percentage of negative impacts in many cases, as compared to India. If we make an inventory, negative impact outnumbers the positive one for Nepal. Followings are the impacts of open border system : Positive Impact: As we make a list of positive impacts, it may be the followings: Easy access: The most positive aspect of open border system is the easy movement of people of both the countries. Strengthens relationship: People to people relation on the frontiers of both sides has been maintained and strengthened due to free movement of people on either side of the border. Rescue operation: Prompt services have been offered and provided on either side during calamities and disasters. Health service: When there is an epidemic, health services can be offered from both the sides. Instant supply of labour: When there is a shortage of local labour in one side it can be supplied instantly from other side. Competitive Market: There is always a competition between the businessmen of the cross-frontier towns to be benefited to the consumers.. Prompt Supply of food grains and daily stuff: Unrestricted border has made comfortable for the prompt supply of food grains and daily foodstuffs from either side of the territory, where there are shortages. Open border has economically benefited the inhabitants of both sides of the border from the sell and purchase of livestock products, vegetables and daily kitchen stuff in Hat Bazars (open-roof markets) taking place regularly in various days a week in different parts on either side. An Overview of Nepalese Economy There is nothing much to talk about when it comes to Nepalese economy. The data doesnt paint a rosy picture at all. In fact the picture looks grim. Nepal is among the poorest and least developed countries in the world. In fact Nepal doesnt stand anywhere to its otherwise developing neighbors such as India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. Thanks to the Sub-Sahara African countries, it is not considered the poorest economy now. Nevertheless, with almost 45% of its population living below the poverty line, Nepal has to do much catching before being termed a Developing Economy. Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy, providing a livelihood for three-fourths of the population and accounting for 38% of GDP. Most of the agriculture activities take place in the Tarai region. The sub-standard equipments and pesticides along with the medieval mode of agriculture make it a tough affair. The industrial sector is in a dismal condition. Industrial activity mainly involves the processing of agricultural products including jute, sugarcane, tobacco, and grain. These things are hardly considered industrial activities by New-school economists. Due to its long stint with monarchy and feudalism, Nepal has one of the most uneven distributions of resources and wealth in the Asia. This has led to the birth of counter initiative movements such as Maoism. Security concerns relating to the Maoist conflict and counter insurgency initiatives have led to a decrease in tourism, a key source of foreign exchange. Nepal has considerable scope for exploiting its potential in hydropower and tourism. These are considered the up coming hot cakes in New-wave economy. Prospects for foreign trade or investment in other sectors will remain poor, however. There are lots of reasons for this such as the small size of the economy, technological backwardness, landlocked geographic location, civil strife and its susceptibility to natural disaster.

My Invisible Gay Culture Essay -- First Person Narrative Examples

   Unlike an African American because of their skin color, or an Asian because of their distinctive features, or even an Australian because of their accent, my culture is invisible. When I walk into a room my culture is not, from my appearance, apparent to others. The dialect of my culture is not orally distinctive. For the majority of my life, thus far, my own family was unaware of who I am and what I believe my culture to be. Yet, as secretive as this may seem, I still share my culture with millions of invisible others. We partake in days of celebration, moments of fear, the hatred of a nation, but the love of a community. We are men, women, liberal, conservative, Hispanic, Jewish, black, atheist, Christian, republican, democrat, pro-life, and pro-choice. We live in every neighborhood, in every city, of every country all around the world. I myself am white, female and English (with some German flair that I get from my stepfather). I have values, dreams, convictions, and disappointment s all my own, as does each person within this culture. The only common denominator shared between everyone in my culture is that we are all GAY.    My high school was newly built school and had every modem accessory available. The school had an auditorium large enough to front a Broadway play and a swimming pool grand enough for the summer Olympics. What it lacked was diversity. My graduating class of 1988 had one African American and one Asian. That's it. No Hispanics or Native Americans. But, my sophomore year I discovered that within the walls of our school existed several "invisible others."    Our school had a news crew that investigated stories and then brought them to the student body every week. One afternoon while I was watching ... ...redity, prenatal development, childhood experiences, and cultural worlds in varying combinations. It is not what identifies me, but it is a blanket of understanding of who I am.    When asked by a fellow student what my culture was I said that I would be writing about my gay culture. They responded with a jealous, "Wow, You're lucky. You'll have a lot to write about." Am I lucky? I was able to write about persecution, exile, imprisonment and murder. I was able to draw from my own experience of fear, oppression and uncertainty. But this is all history, the past. Gay and Lesbian people first demanded the right to be left alone, and then more recently, the right to be included, their love and relationships accepted and validated. This is the future and what I fight for daily as I live my life with confidence and pride. So yes, that person was right. I am lucky.

Aura in Walter Benjamin’s Illuminations Essay

In Walter Benjamin’s book Illuminations, two particular chapters are relevant to the corpus of works that make up film study. â€Å"Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproductions† and â€Å"The Storyteller† outline a progressive history from oral traditions to the modern traditions such as film that resulted and the bumps that have been encountered along the way. Central to these two chapters is the idea of aura. Aura, though difficult to define, is a concept that is easy to perceive because of its engaging qualities. From oral to written to visual representations including film, the story is the nucleus that produces entertainment and ideally educates the audience. To be entertained does not require much of the audience, but education is an engaging process that preserves culture and maintains the aura. Because of the absence of proverbs, morals, or other trite composite statements, the effective storyteller is kin to the guru. The advice the storyteller offers is found throughout the course of the story and the listener or reader is able to draw the meaning out from the speech or pages of their own accord. As a patient fisherman learns at the end of a long day, not all adventures are fruitful. The timeless quality of the works of Nicolai Leskov can encourage the reader to lose track of the parts of the story that, when later assembled, can be taken as advice. In this way, an attentive reader may find advice or counsel for many situations and the story can continue to unfold through the suggestions that good counsel offers. The â€Å"White Eagle† encourages quotation of different passages in order for a summary to be made and offered as a sacrifice to the luke-warm reader. However, the storyteller’s traditional place is not one of summaries, annotated bibliographies, or cliff notes. Time was meant to be integral in the creation of a story which is only preserved in the social fabric of history. The uniqueness of any event, object, or idea depends upon its temporal qualities. Time and space dictate absolutely everything according to Quantum Physicists who are considered to be on the forefront of the combination of all knowledge. These revolutionary inter-disciplinarians have shown that gravity depends on time and space, that speed depends on time and space, and that even decisions depend on time and space[1]. The decision to tell a story depends on the time, traditionally evening when there is less work to be done, and the space, made up of gathering people encouraging the story to be told. Without these two conditions, ample time to tell the story and one’s willingness to listen, a story cannot take place. Because storytelling is an interchange between the one telling the story and the one who is destined to re-tell the story, the oral tradition is dependent upon listeners for its survival. However, since the transference of the events of the tale are not verbatim, the re-telling is in fact an original telling because the details have been molded to fit the circumstances of the re-telling. If the audience is comprised of mainly children, perhaps more attention will be made to the magical parts of the story. If the audience is teenage boys, more emphasis and elaboration may be made on the graphic images in the story. In the best case scenario â€Å"the perfect narrative is derived through the layers of a variety of retellings† (Benjamin p. 93). When a storyteller chooses to relay some advice that has been intertwined in the fabric of a story which is dependent on the social fabric of the group without an audience present for the telling, the unraveling of oral traditions begins. Written history has certainly provided benefits to society that are too numerous to even attempt to summarize. The unfortunate fact is that none of the advancements resulting from changing production methods have benefited the beautiful intergenerational tapestry of storytelling. A common misconception is that a novel is in continuity with oral tradition when it is, in fact, quite a discontinuity. The novel has different properties and different purposes. For one, the novel is composed in solidarity, far from the social fabric where meaning was derived and solely existed. The reader is forced into solidarity as well and his interpretations may no longer have any bearing on those around him. That is not to say that personal meanings are unimportant, only that writing signifies the beginning of a new timeline in tradition whose grand purpose is â€Å"to carry the incommensurable to extremes in the representation of human life† (Benjamin p. 87). As personal importance and interpretation is difficult to verify, society centralizes on information which depends on its verifiability for survival. Writing is the conveyance of information and in modern times information is of paramount importance. The outcome of wars or the accrual of wealth often results from the timely reception of pertinent information. Reported events are subject to immediate verifiability which causes most contemporary novelists to tread lightly when including supernatural or mystical events in their novels. As the transference of quick and efficient information is increasing, â€Å"the communicability of experience is decreasing† (Benjamin p. 86). Storytelling in a social context was recreating the enjoyable social setting the storyteller once experienced that was moving enough for him or her that he or she decided to provide the same experience for future generations. Even further back in the tradition are the actual events themselves. A character in the story was once a person who, through fortuitous circumstances, participated in the events that produced the story. Although exaggerations have been added for entertainment value and alterations have been made, the attempt was always to communicate an awesome experience. In Leskov’s â€Å"The Left Handed Craftsman,† the namesake is not by far the protagonist, but his involvement with the steel flea from Brittan resurrected the tale which was, among many other things, a tribute to ancient craftsmen. The relationship of the storyteller to his material is that of a craftsman to his medium. Benjamin asks â€Å"whether it is not his [the story teller or craftsman] very task to fashion the raw material of experience, his own and that of others, in a solid, useful, and unique way† (p. 108). If the writer is as acutely aware of his or her audience as an oral story teller would be, it is possible to craft a utilitarian product. The solitary production method of writing that removes the writer from his or her immediate context makes this very difficult to achieve. What is lost is the mystical aura that electrified and preserved oral storytelling for so many generations. Writing by hand inevitably led to the printing press and other forms of art, such as visual art, which soon became easily reproducible. The degradation continues as the mode of production evolves. With the advent of the lithograph, whose origins lie in etching and engraving, works of art were beginning to lose their aura. Just as a written novel is not the same as the oral story from which it may have been derived, reproducing visual art leaves the third printing, especially when dealing with wood as was the case with etching and engraving, less clear than the first printing. In rhythm with the march of advancement, technology made pictorial reproductions more effective and efficient in their representations of real life. The march continued past the incorrigibly life-like photograph to film, silent at first, then at a speed that could keep up with speech. In contemporary times, film reproductions of actual events are so accountable that they can be used as evidence in court cases. As wonderful (for the plaintiff) as that may be, the aura that was so present and integral to the authenticity of storytelling is vanishing into the background just as wood engraving has been subsumed by photography. The ramifications of interest here are those of social orientation, specifically social perceptions. In film, the viewer is not allowed the uniqueness of visual perception that can be found when viewing a piece of art in a gallery. The perspective is derived from variations in the height of the viewer, distance of the viewer from the art, other people possibly surrounding the viewer and the background that changes in the case of traveling art pieces. Film, â€Å"being based on changes of place and focus which periodically assail the spectator,† gives the viewer only two options: eyes open or eyes closed. To view is to give in to the filmmaker’s point of view. The social context that has been created is that the other viewers have given in as well. As for the integrity of the aura, the production method of film, which is far removed from the stage-like presentation of storytelling, is even more fabricated because of the fragmented production method of feature films. Additionally, the aura is lost to the audience of whom nothing more than keeping their eyes open is asked. In hopeful efforts one asks, can the aura be resurrected in film if a storyteller is united with the power of film? Indigenous tribes in modern times are the least removed from their oral traditions and thus the most hopeful for a positive response to the above question. In terms of production, the â€Å"Video in the Villages Project†, headed by most notably Vincent Carelli, is a prime example. The project essentially taught indigenous people from various tribes throughout Brazil how to operate video equipment as well as to edit the final project. The indigenous people were the think tank and the executive board for the choosing of the subject of the separate films. The aura was also lost in the final project which can neither be defined as a documentary or a feature film. The people in â€Å"A Day in the Village,† have chosen to show some of their daily routines. As the events are displayed in a fragmented way, one can assumed they were also taped in a fragmented manner. There is no central story, just the theme of activities of this tribe. As for the aura emanating from a guru like storyteller, there is none. A film like the Inuit produced and directed â€Å"The Fast Runner† is the telling of an Inuit tale in the context of a tribal gathering. The storyteller is present throughout the whole tale but he is, obviously, on screen. With film, the context is always mutable because the same film can be shown simultaneously in innumerable locations. New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Prague, and Minsk could all choose to premier a film at the exact same time but the social context is completely unique in each of these situations. The languages change and the people in the theater or viewing space are unique to that particular showing. According to Benjamin â€Å"The manner in which human sense perception is organized, the medium in which it is accomplished is determined not only by nature but by historical circumstances as well† (p. 222). If the historical circumstances can be so easily changed, the meaning can also just as easily be changed. To the people in the sweat lodge hearing that story, the aura could have been part of the captivating presence that maintained the story and created a central meaning for that society. But to an urban citizen who has had no direct contact with these traditions, the aura is not engaging and the meaning, if any has been found, is personal. The active participation of the audience is the same as any other film: unnecessary. There is no tradition in this context and the film will survive even if no viewer is enchanted to listen attentively enough to later replicate the story. The fragmented production of this feature film, like any other, degrades the aura of the original story to a level which is unnoticeable. This film’s attempts to be part of the Hollywood entertainment genre, which almost categorically excludes the necessarily engaging aspects of oral traditions from which the story derives, fails to maintain its original aura. The lessons of our ancestors have always been an important aspect of physical and cultural survival. Through film and indigenous attempts at film, the aura has been lost and it does not seem that it can be resurrected. Cultures are being subsumed into â€Å"melting pots† that neglect individuality and suppress autonomy. Information is more important than the unique nuances a storyteller can combine with sound advice to preserve and at the same time progress a culture. If the good of all is in question, the storyteller must survive. The only issue is if there will be a context for the storyteller to survive in.

The Multistore Model of Memory Essay - 558 Words

The Multistore Model of Memory The multistore model is a representation of memory based on having more than one different kind of store for remembered information. Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) proposed this model based on evidence related to the separate stores of memory (e.g. serial position: primacy recency, forgetting etc.). It suggests that memory comprises of three separate stores, the sensory memory store, the short-term memory and the long-term memory, each store having a specific and relatively inflexible function: Information enters and is initially stored in SM which holds information for very brief periods of time if the information is not concentrated on. However, if a†¦show more content†¦Later, he frequently asked about his uncle and, on each occasion, reacted again with the level of grief appropriate to hearing the news for the first time. KF, a motorcycle accident victim investigated by Shallice and Warrington (1970), suffered from the reverse of this memory impairment. He had no difficulty in transferring new items into LTM but had a grossly impaired digit span. Cases such as these lend support to the Atkinson and Shiffrin model, in that they seem to point to a clear distinction between LTM and STM. There does seem to be fairly strong support for a difference between LTM and STM in terms of duration, capacity and effects of brain damage. However, there are problems with the model of Atkinson and Shiffrin. The model is too simple and inflexible and fails to take account of f actors such as the strategies people employ to remember things. It also places emphasis on the amount of information that can be processed rather than its nature. Some things are simply easier to remember than others, perhaps because they are more interesting, more distinctive, funnier, or whatever. The multistore model cannot account for this. Furthermore, alternative explanations can account for the empirical findings e.g. the levels of processing model. This model was put forward by Craik and Lockhart (1972). According to them, processing varies in terms of depth, TraceShow MoreRelatedOutline and Evaluate the Working Memory Model1210 Words   |  5 Pagespicture of short-term memory (STM) provided by the Multi-Store Model was far too simple. Following the Multi-Store Model, it is believed that STM holds limited amounts of information for short periods of time with relatively little processing, it is believed to be a unitary store. This means that due to its single store it has no subsystems, unlike the Working Memory Model which has many subsystems. This proves that the Working Memory is not a unitary store. Working Memory is STM. In contrast toRead MoreEssay about Evaluation of Two Models Of Memory1413 Words   |  6 PagesTwo Models Of Memory In this essay 2 models of memory will be described and compared. They are the Atkinson and Sniffrin model of memory, the Multistore model, and Crain and Lockhart model, the Levels of Processing Model. Models of memory are primitive diagrams of human memory to help understand the flow of information and how it is stored. In order to evaluate those 2 models appropriately it is important to understand how old they are. The Multistore Model of MemoryRead MorePsychology: Research Methods in Cognitive Level of Analysis1141 Words   |  5 Pagesa particular component of the cognitive process for study (IV) to test its effect on the DV. An example for this method is the case Craik Tulving’s levels of processing study test the effects of visual phonetic and semantic (IV) processing on memory recall. (DV) The experiments involves showing participants a list of 60 words. And then ask them to recall certain words by being shown in 3 questions, each testing a different level of processing. Tests of a) Shallow Processing, b) Phonemic ProcessingRead MoreWorking Memory Is A Cognitive System That Maintains And Manipulates Task Relevant Information1366 Words   |  6 PagesWorking memory is a cognitive system that maintains and manipulates task-relevant information for a short period of time. (Cowan, J. 1999) Memory plays a crucial role in everyday life. It enables one to effectively perform complex tasks such as the ability to reason and solve new problems independently on a daily basis. Working memory is limited in capacity and sensitive to interruptions. â€Å"Without memory, our awareness would be confined to an external present and our lives would be virtually devoidRead MoreYour Ability To Use Your Short Term Memory When Emotions1014 Words   |  5 PagesYour Ability to Use Your Short Term Memory When Emotions Cloud Judgement: Short Term Memory and Emotions When using short term memory a topic or a picture can be forgotten within minutes. Then when an event that causes a positive or negative emotion occurs that creates dissonance. Short term memory recall can be important in some situations that are out of our control. When piecing together what the best emption to have when trying to recallRead MoreExplain How Biological Factors May Affect One Cognitive Process1659 Words   |  7 Pagescognitive process Memory is essential to human beings. It’s not only the brain’s main function, but is also used everyday without us noticing: we acquire new information, store it, retain it and might retrieve it if needed. It’s thanks to memory and its three main stages: encoding, storage and retrieval, that humans can operate and recall events and information on a daily basis with no difficulty or effort whatsoever. In 1960, it was claimed that there was more than one memory system. ResearchersRead MoreMotor Learning Essay23209 Words   |  93 Pagesstimulus that resulted in an observable movement response. True According to your book the two most important bodies of knowledge that shaped the field of study known as motor control and learning are: psychology and neurophysiology In the hierarchical model of motor control what cognitive process is hypothesized to occur between the time of a stimulus and the initiation of a response? none of the above The concept of self-organization is associated with what movement control theory? none of the above Read MorePsychology: Jean Piaget Essay1598 Words   |  7 Pagesorder to input and output information. Some key aspects of information processing are attention, memory, or metacognition. According to Bergin Bergin (2012), the multistore model, which describes three storage areas-sensory, register, working memory, and long-term memory, is the most popular information-processing model. In order for people to remember information and put information into long-term memory people need to pay attention and rehearse. According to Bergin Bergin (2012), many of the theoriesRead MoreGLO-BUS simulation.1426 Words   |  6 Pagespertaining to Core components such as Image Resolution, Lens, and Memory. For Brand specific components we concentrated on Imaging, The shape and type of camera body, the software used and Accessories provided for both the entry level as well as multifeatured camera. We decided to provide 3 special features in entry-level camera and six special features in multifeatured camera. We introduced 2 models for entry-level camera and one model for multifeatured camera. Various Product design decisions areRead MoreMeasuring Short Term Memory Span by Investigating the Relationship Between Digital and Spatial Span Tasks.2047 Words   |  9 PagesMEASURING SHORT TERM MEMORY SPAN BY INVESTIGATING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DIGITAL AND SPATIAL SPAN TASKS. ABSTRACT The purpose of this experiment was to measure short term memory span by looking into the relationship between two span tasks: digital and spatial. The experiment measured digit span and spatial span for each participant by carrying out two trials of each task out at the end of which the participants noted their scores down. The participants task was to recall the